Downloaded 124 times
Uploaded byNancy Wright White
Strategic Communities of Practice
This document discusses strategic communities of practice and how to develop and sustain them. It covers basic concepts like domain, community, and practice. It emphasizes the importance of understanding stakeholder perspectives, including sponsors, facilitators/leaders, and members. It also discusses roles within communities like facilitators, network weavers, and curators. Frameworks are presented for assessing community maturity and measuring value creation through outcomes like immediate, potential, applied, and realized value. The document provides guidance on factors to consider for strategic communities of practice.
More Related Content
Similar to Strategic Communities of Practice
Strategic Communities of Practice
- 1. Strategic Communities of Practice What shouldwe be paying attention to, doing and valuing? Nancy White Full Circle Associates http://www.fullcirc.com
- 2. Welcome! Write your name beneath a chair and get comfortable! Choconancy’s chairs http://www.fullcirc.com
- 3. Where we developa way to describe our work with communities PART 1: BASIC VOCABULARY
- 4. What we care about DOMAIN What and how Who cares we do things about it together COMMUNITY about it PRACTICE Practical hint: all three of these “legs” change over time. The trick is not to have all three changing at the same time. That can be very destabilizing for a community!
- 5. Tech + Social: Technology has fundamentally changedhow we can be together http://www.flickr.com/photos/exper/1477729345/
- 6. DOMAIN COMMUNITY PRACTICE
- 7. Meets needsof sponsors, leaders and members What we Broad enough to attract care Focused enough to matter about in our work Often shifts over time What we Who cares do Drives the “who” and the about it together about it “what we do”
- 8. What We Care About: What are we about? What is our identity? What is the significance? To our Organization To us as individuals
- 9. Practical Purpose Points Is itclear? Is it sharable? Is it inviting? to teams individuals Is it reasonable? Is it negotiable?
- 10. It relatesto my identity Connects me to other What we people “like me” care about Holds sufficient diversity People who have time & attention to engage Who What we do Involves cares together about it relationships about it
- 11. Activities What we Content people care about use, create & share How people engage with each What we other to learn/do Who cares do things about it together about it How people apply what they learn in the community back at their work
- 12. How are youfeeling right now? Draw…
- 13. How to drawfaces? Check out Austin Kleon and Dave Gray http://www.austinkleon.com/2009/07/27/how-to-draw-faces/ http://www.davegrayinfo.com/2010/10/28/drawing-facial-expressions/
- 14. How are youfeeling right now? Draw… LET‟S LOAD UP A WHITE BOARD AND TRY…
- 15.
- 16. … meetings … open-ended … projects conversation … content … access to publishing Community expertise activities oriented to … … individual … relationships participation … community cultivation … context Base material from: Digital Habitats: Stewarding technology for communities © 2009 Wenger, White, and Smith
- 17. Community Name: KM4Dev Once a year and only about global knowledge sharing network … meetings 10% do/can participate. Email list is core of … open-ended community activity conversation … projects When funding allows. E.G. Community knowledge wiki, supporting ShareFair content management system to bring together resources. … content … access to publishing expertise activities oriented to … Informally via the email list With only one meeting a by asking/answering year, large size and questions. diversity, KM4Dev focuses on enabling individual participation. Relationships mostly via meetings and core group. … individual Strongly participation external – all … relationships resources public/shared. While everyone pays … community Base material from: attention to the cultivation … context Digital Habitats: Stewarding technology for community, no communities © 2009 Wenger, White, and Smith centralized efforts…
- 18. Monthly meetings with Example: The Environmental … meetings everyone at the university Resource Network concerned about the environment, shared calendars Bump into another … open-ended member? Have a conversation … projects conversation, emails Awareness events, orientation for environmental student groups, workshops Blog, website, … content … access to expertise activities oriented to … Inviting experts to monthly meetings/events/workshop Anyone with an interest in the s environment can be a member but the network targets active student groups, rss Twitter, Facebook, email list, member directories … individual participation Public. Minutes are shared. Network is … relationships Members connected accountable to all … community students who pay a … context through a shared levy interest cultivation Base material from: Digital Habitats: Stewarding technology for communities, © 2009 Wenger, White, and Smith
- 19. ERN and KM4Dev-ers … meetings … open-ended conversation … projects … content … access to publishing expertise activities oriented to … … relationships … individual participation … community Base material from: Digital Habitats: Stewarding technology for cultivation … context communities © 2009 Wenger, White, and Smith
- 20. Where we payattention to our stakeholders… PART 2: ENGAGEMENT FROM 3 PERSPECTIVES
- 21. Three strategic Mitigation/Adaptation Strategic Vulnerability/Resilience perspectives: Value Measurable/accountable Communities and… Strategic Options the broader strategic continuum Leadership Strategic Design repertoire Practices Life or death practices Measurable
- 22. Three stakeholder perspectives: Sponsors Facilitators and Leaders Members
- 23. Three stakeholder Strategic goals Strategic goals perspectives: Resources Resources Sponsors M & EE M& Results Results Facilitators and Role & & Role Leaders tasktask clarity clarity Feedback Feedback Purpose Purpose Members Ease Ease Value Value
- 24. Sponsors Strategic goals Sponsor Resource provision s Monitoring & evaluation Communication of results Facilitators and Leaders Members
- 25. Poll #2: Whatmight be some of the intended and unintended impacts of sponsors on community engagement?
- 26. Facilitators & Leaders Sponsors Role clarity Task clarity Facilitators Feedback and Leaders Members
- 27. What does yourcommunity leadership look like online? Put your ideas in the chat…
- 28. Members Sponsors Facilitators and Leaders Clarityof purpose Ease of use Efficient of time Members
- 29. Bridging Across Perspectives Sponsors Facilitators and Leaders Members
- 30. What is themagic sauce? PART 3: ROLES & FRAMEWORKS
- 31. • discover & enablepeople to…appropriate useful technology • be in and use communities & networks (people) • express their identity • find and create content • usefully participate
- 32. facilitators community leaders technology stewards network weavers Independent thinkers curators moderators For example see: http://wenger-trayner.com/blog/leadership-groups-for-social-learning/
- 34. Mendazibal: 6 Network Functions • Filters • Amplifiers • Convenors • Facilitators • Investors • Community builders http://www.odi.org.uk/Rapid/Projects/PPA0103/Functions.html
- 35. FAO‟s “Nine Keys toa Successful Thematic Knowledge Networks
- 36. Design for Connection Don Tapscott
- 37.
- 38. Tom’s Analysis • Membership growth slows significantly – Community membership grew 62% from January to July at a average clip of 55 new members per week. From July to December, the membership only grew 13% at an average clip of 20 members per week. This is a fall-off of more than 63% on a week to week basis. • Number of visits drop 60% - The number of visits from January through July averaged more than 1,300 per week. For the second half of the year, average visits dropped nearly 60% to an average of 522 per week. • Number of pages viewed per visit drops 22% - Not only did the number of visits drop, the number of pages per visit also decreased by 22% with the average pages per visit going from 3.76 to 2.95. • Time on site decreases by 33% – Driven by the fewer page views, the time on site in minutes during active management was 3:38 vs. 2:37 after July which is a 1:19 or 33% decrease. • Fresh activity on the site since August has been pretty nonexistant as well – just 10 new blog posts, 4 new file uploads, and less than 25 discussion forum questions or comments have been posted.
- 39. Glenda Eoyang • Observe. Don‟t waste a good surprise. Pause and wonder when something unexpected arises. It may be the weak signal foreshadowing something important to come. • Connect. Nothing co-evolves in isolation. The key is connecting in inquiry with the environment, with current and historical patterns, and with other thoughtful people. • Question. Our assumptions blind us to the world around and lock us into our long-held problems and their failed solutions. A good question can break through the expected to discover the possible. • Try it out. Of course expectations based on past experience will make us question anything we haven't experienced. To see something new, we really have to see it. Try a new idea out, see what happens, adjust and try again. We call this adaptive action. Reward thoughtful risk taking. http://bit.ly/lPyXxJ
- 40. Balancing the Formaland the Informal • From : http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2010/04/spreading_critical_behaviors_v.html • Formal programmatic efforts to change behaviors work mostly on the rational side of human behavior • Informal experiential efforts can capture the emotional side • Programmatic change takes more time& costs more and encounters more resistance than "viral" change • You need both over time • A "viral" effort usually begins with a few respected "master motivators” • Insights & approaches of the motivators work best in experiential settings • Experiential momentum sustained informally & formally • The most important lesson: importance of cross-organization energy & its dependence on the informal
- 41. Community Maturity ModelTM Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Hierarchy Emergent Community Networked Community Familiarize & Strategy Listen Participate Build Integrate Command & Leadership Control Consensus Collaborative Distributed Culture Reactive Contributive Emergent Activist Community Defined roles & Integrated roles & None Informal Management processes processes Content & Formal & Some user Community Integrated formal Programming Structured generated created content & user generated content Policies & No Guidelines for Restrictive social Flexible social Inclusive Governance UGC media policies media policies Consumer tools Consumer & self- Mix of consumer & „Social‟ functionality Tools used by service tools enterprise tools is integrated individuals Metrics & Activities & Behaviors & Anecdotal Basic Activities Measurement Content Outcomes http://community-roundtable.com/
- 42. Short term, Explicit purpose Calendar of events, often associated with an event Starts, works, finishes. focused Defined resources Defined membership Broad, Information aggregation or Requires long term commitment to content creation and curation source content as Defined resources Little member decision making May not stimulate individual engagement, but lots of visits. Little member “ownership” or attractor association (identity) Small group tries something Can be a source of innovation Small Often emerges out of events People are attracted and join that can then be more formally supported and scaled. May not align with sponsor goals. Look experiments Structure emerges from experiments Often little/no resources for phase change to more structure.
- 43. • Go forward Maturity • Iterating/refining • End • Content capture • Diversification • Sub communities Growth • More roles • New and Old members • On-boarding • Core/periphery • Structure • Small, structured Launch • Open, emergent • Core members • Key events
- 44. Measure! Wenger, Trayner &de Laat Promoting and assessing value creation in communities and networks: a conceptual framework – Immediate Value (what happened) – Potential Value (what was produced) – Applied Value (what difference did it make) – Realized Value (impact) – Reframing Value (what‟s changed?) http://wenger-trayner.com/resources/publications/evaluation-framework/
- 45.
- 46. Next? Talk, write, Skype, Tweet Nancyw@fullcirc.com http://www.fullcirc.com @NancyWhite Some rights reserved by Eleaf http://www.flickr.com/photos/eleaf/2536358399/sizes/m/in/photostream/
Editor's Notes
- #2 As humans, we have a long history of working in groups: families, local geographic communities, work teams. Today online technologies allow us to connect broadly using networks of all kinds. We might think of these as deep (groups) and broad (networks). The word "community" rolls off many tongues as a central form for social sharing of knowledge. Do we really know what we mean by this? How do we practice it?
- #4 I find it helpful to have an organizing framework…
- #5 It helps to have a framework and a language as we design, execute and evaluate our communities. This model comes from the communities of practice literature and gives a nice three way view. We have “What we care about,” “WHO cares about it” and “What we do together around this thing we care about together!” Said more succinctly: who, what, how. Now throughout this session, I will draw on theory, but I’m a practitioner and in the end, I want things I can PRACTICE. So I’ll bookend everything with practical tips. If you aren’t getting what you need – speak up. So here is the first tip. Communities are always changing. If they aren’t, it’s worth asking “is it time to mix things up a bit?” But let me add a caution. Don’t mix all of these three things up at once. That creates too much instability and confusion. For example, switching up practices can get things flowing. Bringing in new people (or gently encourage those who have outgrown the community to leave) is useful to do now and again. (Hat tip to Etienne Wenger and John Smith for that advice!)
- #7 I
- #8 It is critical we have a reason for convening a community. People are too busy and have too many communities they could potentially engaged in. So we are really competing for their time and attention. One early practical tip is to find out if there is an existing community that cares about what you care about and DON’T build your own. Communities take a lot of time, work and often resources. And “yet another” community may not be your best course of action. If there is no other appropriate community, then you can think more about your own. Some things to consider when thinking about the WHAT including ensuring it meets the needs of the three perspectives we discussed earlier. It has to be broad enough to attract a critical mass of people, but specific enough to really matter in their daily life or work. There is always that problem of the “mom and apple pie” (to borrow an American expression) purpose. “End world hunger.” No one can disagree, yet it is so broad, you don’t know where to start. TOO focused and you will exclude potentially interested people.
- #11 So you have the what. This drives the “who” – the people who care about the “what we care about.” There are two parts to this “who” – finding and encouraging people to participate and valuing and supporting the relationship BETWEEN the members. Online communities offer something more than content – we can find that in abundance across the internet. They offer us access to each other. So when we think about the who, it’s not just about “getting them in the door” but helping them get to know and relate to each other. This can be done through tools such as profiles and directories, but it also happens when we introduce ourselves in discussions and web meetings. When facilitators introduce people to each other … “hey, you are both working on XYZ…”The other really interesting part of this is as people join a community, it becomes a little part of their expression of their own identity. Shawn Callahan of Anecdote.au talks about the test of “I am a….” When people say “I’m a chocoholic.” “I’m a member of the Chocolate Lovers Community” it means they value their membership. It says something about what they are interested in and what is important to them. This ties very closely to the “what” we just talked about. See, the legs are tied together pretty strongly!When we get this intersection of who and what, people are much more likely to spend the time to engage. To relate. Like a great party, you want the right people “in the room,” and engaging with each other.
- #12 Finally, there is the action – what we do together around the thing we care about with each other. A nice shorthand is to think of this as the set of activities that support our purpose. This can be a broad range of things like web meetings, web based discussions, blogging together, writing something together on a wiki, teaching each other things, sharing case studies and stories, mentoring each other, inviting in new members, taking on specific roles, sharing great content. It is the stuff we do together. When designing, managing and facilitating, these activities are the building blocks of our work. We can see them across time as a calendar of activities. New communities really need to focus on specific, structured activities to get people engaged and invested. Informal or well established communities may generate much of this on their own. In fact, that is a great sign of success when the community becomes a hive of self-organized activity. There is an old saying, “if you build it they will come.” Well, they may drop by for a visit, but if there is nothing happening, they won’t stay and you will have an empty shell. There is a second layer of “what we do together” that is also important – how people apply what they learn out in the world, out in their work. In the end, WB communities are not there just to be there. They exist to support change in the world. So activities that help members share and reflect on how they apply what they learn can be crucial.Let’s look at a few examples.
- #21 It seems obvious that different stakeholders have different perspectives. Yet we often fail to take these into account as we design, manage and facilitate…
- #22 When designing, managing and facilitating online communities and networks, we have to be able to work from at least three perspectives: the sponsors and their strategic goals and objectives, community leaders and facilitators with their attention to process and relationships, and finally, the members with attention to what creates enough value to make participation worth their time and attention. Now, as we look at both design, deployment and evaluation, the reality is often that we have “three bosses” --- three perspectives we have to harmonize at some level. I’ve found it really helps if we keep these in mind early on – especially in initial design and in early design of a monitoring and evaluation approach. Each of these perspectives are critical. Sometimes they may be shared and sometimes contradictory. Sponsors may want members to do something they have no interest in doing. Facilitators may feel unappreciated by both sponsors and members. By being able to step back and consider each perspective, we are more likely to bring the shared desires to the forefront and minimize the disconnects.
- #23 When designing, managing and facilitating online communities and networks, we have to be able to work from at least three perspectives: the sponsors and their strategic goals and objectives, community leaders and facilitators with their attention to process and relationships, and finally, the members with attention to what creates enough value to make participation worth their time and attention.
- #24 When designing, managing and facilitating online communities and networks, we have to be able to work from at least three perspectives: the sponsors and their strategic goals and objectives, community leaders and facilitators with their attention to process and relationships, and finally, the members with attention to what creates enough value to make participation worth their time and attention. Now, as we look at both design, deployment and evaluation, the reality is often that we have “three bosses” --- three perspectives we have to harmonize at some level. I’ve found it really helps if we keep these in mind early on – especially in initial design and in early design of a monitoring and evaluation approach. Each of these perspectives are critical. Sometimes they may be shared and sometimes contradictory. Sponsors may want members to do something they have no interest in doing. Facilitators may feel unappreciated by both sponsors and members. By being able to step back and consider each perspective, we are more likely to bring the shared desires to the forefront and minimize the disconnects.
- #25 By sponsors, we most often mean someone in a leadership position in an organization, a department or division or an organization itself. Sometimes sponsors are simply people who want to see something happen. Sponsors need to know they are investing in the right things and that those things are being done well. Those responsible for communities and networks should have a clear agreement with sponsors on goals, resources that can be provided, clarity on what will be measured, evaluated and how, and clarity on what the sponsor wants to be informed on in an ongoing manner. These can, and often should be, modified over time. Creating them at the start provides clarity that helps all involved. The only time the sponsor perspective is not strongly represented is when a community is formed informally or intentionally “under the radar” to protect an emergent idea that may not be ready for full organizational exposure. Of course, there are risks to this approach, but many successful communities emerged, rather than being mandated from above.
- #27 Facilitators and community leaders are both key in making things happen in a community or network. Typically the facilitators have a clearly defined role, often supported in some way by their organization. Community leaders, on the other hand, are most often volunteers. Both play vital roles in a community and often they share a similar perspective. (However, when you go to a more detailed level of analysis, I’d split these apart!) Facilitators and leaders are task focused and thus value role and task definition. What should I be doing? How? By when. Sometimes this means training and support from more experienced facilitators. It means allocating time. One thing that is often missing for them is feedback on how they are doing and what value they are adding. This is critical for sustainability.
- #29 Finally, but most importantly, we have the member perspective. There is no community without the members. No network. Today people can participate in so many communities that their level of engagement is spread thin. So the most important question we have to ask – and keep asking – is the purpose of our community valuable and relevant to members? Are the activities worth the time and attention it takes members to participate? Once we have achieved relevance for them, what kind of engagement is needed to help the community fulfill its potential?
- #30 Each of these perspectives are critical. Sometimes they may be shared and sometimes contradictory. Sponsors may want members to do something they have no interest in doing. Facilitators may feel unappreciated by both sponsors and members. By being able to step back and consider each perspective, we are more likely to bring the shared desires to the forefront and minimize the disconnects.
- #31 We talked about the myth of “build it and they will come.” What the study of online community management has shown, what experienced practioners tell us time and time again is that facilitation is essential. Today, with the range of social media available, facilitation is a much more diverse practice. It used to be about facilitating discussion boards. It is no longer that simple. In financially tight times, it is tempting to think we don’t need people taking care of our communities. We need them. We can, however, prioritize what we do to make the most of that time. Reflecting back to some of the design options we just talked about, we can ask what types of facilitation they need – it can be diverse – and use that to help inform our decisions. Let’s look at a few aspects of community facilitation.
- #36 The Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN has developed this set of approaches for working with their thematic knowledge networks.
- #37 Don Tapscott’s engagement strategies for new Open Cities collaborative
- #38 http://community-roundtable.com/2010/01/the-value-of-community-management/http://tomhumbarger.wordpress.com/2009/01/13/the-importance-of-active-community-management-proved-with-real-data/I came across this blog post and it really caught my eye: Tom wrote: “I think most community experts would agree that active community management and ongoing strategy are vital to a community’s health. However, I don’t know if anyone has been able to fully quantify the impact using actual community metrics.Until now – when I decided to analyze some of the 2008 data for my former community during the period of active management and the period of passive management.I was the community manager for a professional community from January 2007 through July 2008. During that time, the community grew from zero to 4,000 members. We were rigorous with the tracking of metrics and updated community analytics weekly through a combination of our platform reports and Google Analytics. I was laid off in July due to financial hardship of the community sponsor, but the community doors have remained open albeit with no community management or minimal upkeep.During the time of my involvement, active community management and consisted of:delivery of bi-weekly email update newslettersproduction of monthly webcastsactive blog posting and blogger outreachuploading of fresh content each weekcontinual promotion of the community in various forums through guerilla marketingongoing brainstorming and strategizing with respect to improving the community experiencepriming of discussion forums, andongoing communications with individual community membersIt’s interesting to discover that a neglected community will indeed continue to function without a dedicated community manager. However, the results are lackluster and the picture are not ‘pretty’.For example, this is a screen shot from Google Analytics graphing the number of weekly visits to the community from 1/1/2008 through 12/31/08:Google Analytics - 1/1/2008 to 12/31/2008Additional details from the metrics include:Membership growth slows significantly – Community membership grew 62% from January to July at a average clip of 55 new members per week. From July to December, the membership only grew 13% at an average clip of 20 members per week. This is a fall-off of more than 63% on a week to week basis.Number of visits drop 60% - The number of visits from January through July averaged more than 1,300 per week. For the second half of the year, average visits dropped nearly 60% to an average of 522 per week.Number of pages viewed per visit drops 22% - Not only did the number of visits drop, the number of pages per visit also decreased by 22% with the average pages per visit going from 3.76 to 2.95.Time on site decreases by 33% – Driven by the fewer page views, the time on site in minutes during active management was 3:38 vs. 2:37 after July which is a 1:19 or 33% decrease.Fresh activity on the site since August has been pretty nonexistant as well – just 10 new blog posts, 4 new file uploads, and less than 25 discussion forum questions or comments have been posted. For some interesting reason, the activity on the related LinkedIn group has picked up and included 15 new discussions in just the last week. This definitely is worth taking a deeper look in a separate blog post.So what does this mean? Clearly, the analysis proves that active managementcontributes significantly to the health of a professional community. And that it is ultimately important to the success of a community.”
- #39 Look at Tom’s analysis. If your manager doesn’t see the value of facilitation, share these statistics!
- #40 http://www.hsdinstitute.org/learn-more/read-the-latest/attractors.htmlThere are a variety of facilitation and community management models. Here is one of those simple set of useful “rules of thumb” or heuristics that are tried and true.
- #41 Another lens is that of formality/informality. I came across this set of observations in the Harvard Business Review and thought it would be useful to share because you, coming from a large organization, AND working with very diverse constituents from around the world may often work with organizational expectations of formality. What this article helps us remember is that we need both formal and informal and communities – where people come together – can often be a nexus point for the informal. Now, this can often be interpreted as the “fluffy bunny” stuff – you know, emotions, relationships and such. I work with a lot of scientists and economists and there is a tendency for some to shy away from this language. Yet when we look at their practices, they do this all the time. They just talk about it differently. The bottom line for community facilitators and managers is you need to attend to social practice as well as the subject matter.
- #42 Here is a really interesting set of perspectives, again from the Community Roundtable. One thing I’d caution is this progression makes the assumption that moving to the right is “better” than “staying on the left.” I’d counter that it really depends on the type of community. But simply by scanning across this, we can consider perhaps soe different possibilities and perspectives for our communities. It is easy to stay stuck in one pattern – perhaps the one you first experienced or the fairly basic mandate you started with – and miss how your community can evolve.
- #43 Here are a few examples for comparison. There are MANY more! (In fact it would be fun to do some pattern work around this!)There is a major event or initiative and a community is set up around that event. There is a strong beginning, middle and end, clear target audience and a defined set of activities. These time-delimited communities can be very successful because people are more easily willing to commit for set action items within defined time ranges. They have a sense of their ability to say yes. These can be seeds for longer term communities if there is sufficient attention to relationship and evolving with and to member needs over time, or they may simply be ended and archived. Both are realistic strategies. Some communities started with a broad topic and a wide invitation to participants. This strategy often builds on the aggregation of content that might be useful in this topic area and people come, browse content and some interact. It is a way to build general interest and begin to affiliate with others interested in the topic. This strategy can be thought of as building or tapping into a network of people interested in something. Once established, there is a critical strategic choice to be made: continue to use resources to keep the information hub going (as a service) or begin to cultivate and weave relationships to move people from information browsing to some other kind of interaction. This might be identification of sub-communities of interest, attracting experts who might be willing to share their knowledge etc. The key thing about this approach is within about a year, there needs to be an assessment and decision about the next phase or you end up simply providing content. A third less common but very useful pattern is launching with small experiments and smaller numbers of members. This strategy is good for complex or emerging situations where you are not entirely sure of any of the three legs of the stool, but sense an opportunity for engaging people. You facilitate people designing and doing small community experiments with each other – generally time delimited with a clear beginning, middle and end. A useful practice is to do a mid point review and support changes and interations. At the end of the experiment, evaluate and then amplify what works and stop what isn’t working. This is a useful form for places of both uncertainty and where you want to foster both innovation and member ownership. Sponsor goals are looser and more flexible.
- #44 We can also think about strategy along a timeline. In the last slide we thought about three different design patterns. By looking at a community across time, we can see how we can utilize different design strategies depending on a community’s life cycle.
- #45 Recently, Etienne Wenger, Bev Trayner and Maarten deLaat wrote a terrific paper on measuring value creation in communities and networks. They talk about various levels of value that accrue over time. At the end of their paper, they have a toolkit for doing story telling or narrative processes to measure across these levels qualitatively.
- #46 Here are a few items from each level to give you a sense of the meaning of the five levels.
- #47 http://www.flickr.com/photos/eleaf/2536358399/sizes/m/in/photostream/